GIFT  OF 


THE  TECHNIQUE 

of 

PREPARING  SOCIAL 
SCIENCE  PAPERS 


By 

Emory  S.  Bogardus 

Department  of  Sociology 

University  of  Southern  California 


Second  Edition,  Revised 


Published  by  the  Southern  California  Sociological  Society 

University  of  Southern  California 

Los  Angeles,  California 


THE  TECHNIQUE 

of 

PREPARING  SOCIAL 
SCIENCE  PAPERS 


By 

Emory  S.  Bogardus 

Department  of  Sociology 

University  of  Southern  California 


Second  Edition,  Revised 


Published  by  the  Southern  California  Sociological  Society 

University  of  Southern  California 

Los  Angeles,  California 


First  Edition,  1918 
Second  Edition,  Revised,  1921 

Copyright,  1921 
The  Sociological  Society 


The  Technique  of 
Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 


Table  of  Contents 
Preface 

I.     The  Outline,  or  Analysis. 

II.     The  Digest,  or  Abstract. 
A.     Two  Special  Problems. 

III.  The  Summary. 

IV.  The  Book  Review. 

A.     Eight  steps  in  preparing  a  book  review. 

V.     The  Book  Critique. 

A.     The  distinction  between  a  critique  and  a  review. 

VI.     The  Editorial. 

A.     Its  peculiar  significance. 

VII.     The  Term  Paper. 

A.     Four  processes 

1.  Choosing  the  topic. 

a.  Library  topics. 

b.  Field  work  topics. 

c.  Advanced  research  topics. 

2.  Making  the  term  paper  outline. 

3.  Gathering  the  data. 

a.  A  duplex  card  system. 

b.  The  bibliography. 

c.  Case  study. 

d.  Sampling. 

e.  The  survey. 

f .  The  first  interview. 

£The  schedule. 
The  questionnaire. 

4.  Determining  the  form  and  content. 
VIII.     The  Thesis. 

4? 


1:287 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

The  first  edition  of  this  booklet  was  prepared  for  use 
in  the  classes  in  sociology  at  the  University  of  Southern 
California.  It  was  designed  to  assist  students  in  acquiring 
standard  methods  of  writing  term  papers  in  the  social 
science  field.  An  unexpected  interest  was  manifested  in 
the  booklet  by  many  teachers  of  social  science  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States.  There  was  a  specific  response 
to  the  effect  that  students  in  social  science  are  greatly 
in  need  of  training  in  the  actual  technique  and  practice 
of  preparing  written  studies. 

This  revision  contains  nearly  all  the  material  that 
appeared  in  the  first  edition,  besides  new  illustrations  of 
the  main  points  of  that  treatise.  Several  types  of  papers 
that  are  often  assigned  in  the  social  science  field,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  term  paper,  namely,  the  outline,  the  digest 
the  summary,  the  book  review,  the  book  critique,  the 
editorial,  and  the  thesis,  are  discussed  in  this  edition. 

Emory  S.  Bogardus. 
University  of  Southern  California. 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF 
PREPARING  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  PAPERS 

One  of  the  chief  advantages  of  a  college  education  is 
a  training  in  methods.  A  college  course  is  incomplete 
that  gives  the  students  simply  an  acquaintance  with 
facts.  The  other  half  of  a  college  education  is  found 
in  the  training  which  a  student  gains  in  giving  out  his 
ideas  and  knowledge  clearly  and  effectively  to  others. 
A  scientific  training,  or  more  particularly,  a  social  science 
training  is  not  more  than  fifty  per  cent  efficient  which  is 
an  intaking  process  only. 

There  are  two  ways  of  giving  out  ideas:  (1 )  by  public 
speaking,  and  (2)  by  writing.  We  are  here  concerned 
with  the  second  avenue  of  expression.  The  college 
student  is  entitled  to  become  proficient  in  writing  not 
only  English  themes,  but  also  scientific  papers.  To  help 
him  in  this  regard  if  he  is  working  in  the  social  science 
field,  "The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers," 
has  been  written. 

I.  The  Outline,  or  Analysis.  The  outline  is  illustrative 
of  the  simplest  form  of  social  science  papers.  The  outline 
is  an  analysis  written  out  in  definite  form.  An  instructor 
sometimes  asks  his  students  to  make  an  outline  of  a 
chapter  in  a  specific  book.  This  chapter  may  deal  with 
a  specific  subject  upon  which  the  instructor  is  lecturing, 
or  which  the  class  is  discussing.  The  aim  of  the  in- 
structor, usually,  is  to  invite  the  attention  of  his  students 
to  a  splendid  presentation  of  an  important  theme,  and 
to  give  them  training  in  preparing  an  elemental  but 
valuable  type  of  social  science  paper. 

The  best  method  of  approach  is  to  read  the  assigned 


b  The  t  eclniqiu  of  Preparing  Sociai.  Science  Papers 

chapter  first  with  the  purpose  of  finding  out  the  funda- 
mental ideas  which  the  author  has  presented.  Then, 
the  student  seeks  the  facts  and  arguments  which  the  author 
has  given  in  support  of  each  of  the  main  propositions, 
and  arranges  them  in  a  logical  order.  A  false  tendency 
is  to  resort  to  the  use  of  topical  words,  because  such  a 
procedure  is  usually  a  cheap  and  wasteful  way  of  meeting 
the  requirements  of  a  worthy  assignment.  If  the  student 
will  hold  himself  ordinarily  to  the  use  of  entire  sentences 
rather  than  to  topical  words  in  preparing  an  outline, 
he  will  be  following  the  better  method. 

The  preparation  of  a  satisfactory  outline  may  become 
an  artistic  or  a  routine  task,  dependent  entirely  upon 
the  student's  attitude.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  make 
an  analysis  of  a  chapter  in  such  a  way  that  the  outline 
will  be  superior  in  arrangement  to  the  author's  treat- 
ment. A  meritorious  outline  is  not  a  scaffolding  or  a 
skeleton.  It  is  the  inner  content  of  a  mental  production 
made  visible  to  the  reader  by  the  logical  arrangement 
of  incisive  sentence-thoughts.  It  is  not  a  hasty  copying 
of  the  publisher's  key  sentences  on  the  side  of  the  page 
or  even  of  the  author's  sub-headings.  It  is  the  student's 
interpretation  and  visualization  of  an  author's  thought. 
It  is  not  merely  a  reproduction;  it  is  a  revelation. 

The  preparation  of  an  outline  gives  the  student  a 
training  which  he  can  later  use  to  its  full  extent  in  writing 
original  papers  or  articles.  He  who  can  make  a  correct 
analysis  of  the  written  thought  of  another  person  is  on 
the  road  to  analyzing  his  own  thinking  on  different 
questions  and  to  the  successful  projection  of  his  own 
thought  into  new  mental  fields. 

II.  The  Digest,  or  Abstract.  A  digest,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, an  abstract,  is  a  condensed  statement  of  another 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Sociai  Science  Papers  7 

person's  ideas  or  treatment  of  a  subject  in  the  words  so 
far  as  possible  of  that  person.  A  digest  is  usually  made 
of  articles  published  in  journals.  The  purpose  is  to 
give  in  a  brief  compass  the  gist  of  the  specific  article. 

The  difficulties  in  making  a  digest  are  two-fold,  (a) 
An  article  that  is  well  written  already  appears  in  a 
condensed  form.  The  author  presumably  has  resorted 
to  no  circumlocutions;  he  has  not  been  wordy:  he  has 
used  as  few  well-chosen  words  as  possible  in  correctly 
expressing  his  thought.  Therefore,  how  can  the  maker 
of  a  digest,  for  example,  put  the  author's  ideas  into 
one-tenth,  or  less,  of  the  original  number  of  carefully 
selected  words  without  doing  violence  to  those  ideas. 
In  fact,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  satisfactory 
digest  of  a  carefully  written  article.  However,  very 
few  articles  are  well  written,  hence,  the  need  of  making 
digests.  Of  course,  even  an  article  in  which  the  author 
uses  terse,  condensed  sentences  usually  contains  main 
propositions  with  explanations,  in  which  case  the  maker 
of  the  digest  can  give  the  fundamental  statements. 

(b)  Another  difficulty  in  preparing  a  digest  is  in- 
volved in  the  customary  rule  of  writing  it  in  the  lan- 
guage, as  far  as  possible,  of  the  author  of  the  article. 
The  constant  temptation  is  to  resort  to  one's  own  words 
in  writing  a  digest,  or  worse  still,  to  alternate  between 
the  language  of  the  author  and  one's  own  words.  A 
special  merit  in  preparing  a  digest  is  the  discipline  which 
it  affords  in  being  objective,  that  is,  in  keeping  the 
personal  reflections  of  one's  self  out  of  the  digest. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  outline,  the  digest  is  strictly  ob- 
jective. To  cut  down  an  author's  treatment  of  a  subject 
so  as  to  present  the  chief  propositions  clearly  and  also 
not  to  misrepresent  or  inadequately  present  the  author's 


8  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

contentions  is  an  art  that  is  worthy  of  being  achieved. 
Patient,  repeated  efforts  alone  will  win. 

III.  The  Summary.    The  summary  is  similar  to  the 
digest  except  that  it  is  written  in  the  student's  words. 
To  summarize  well  an  article  or  a  chapter  of  a  book 
is  a  skillful  task  because  it  involves  stating,  condensing, 
and  paraphrasing  the  ideas  of  another  person  in  terms 
of  one's  own  vocabulary.     It  is  profitable  to  write  first 
a  digest  and  then  a  summary  of  the  same  article  in  order 
to  gain  experience  in  treating  the  ideas  of  another,  first 
in  his  language  and  then  in  one's  own  language.     Both 
problems   include   the   processes   of   selection   and   con- 
densation, but  the  latter  involves  the  additional  exercise 
of  paraphrasing,  which  in  itself  affords  a  valuable  training 
in  making  the  choice  of  the  right  words  and  which  results 
in  the  enlargement  of  one's  vocabulary. 

IV.  The  Book  Review.    The  reviewing  of  a  book  is 
a  complicated  process  involving  many  types  of  mental 
activity.     There  are  several  steps:      (1)     The  careful 
reading  of  the  book.     If  the  book  belongs  to  the  student, 
he    may    underscore    the    outstanding    sentences    from 
chapter  to  chapter.     If  the  book  belongs  to  a  library 
or  to  a  friend,  a  light  pencil  mark  or  cross  may  be  made 
in  the  margins  of  the  pages  opposite  important  ideas. 
These  pencilings  will  be  carefully  erased  before  the  book 
is  returned  to  the  library  or  to  its  private  owner. 

(2)     The  underscored  or  marked  sentences  will  then 
be  read  and  analyzed  with  reference  to  specific  objects: 

(a)  What  are  the  main  propositions  of  the  book? 

(b)  What  are  the  chief  subsidiary  propositions? 

(c)  What  has  been  the  purpose  of  the  author  in 
writing  the  book? 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  9 

(d)  How  far  has  the  author  succeeded  in  solving 
the  problem  or  in  meeting  the  task  which  he 
set  himself? 

(e)  How  far  does  the  book  fulfill  the  expectations 
which  its  title  arouses? 

(f )  Has  the  author  used  chiefly  facts  or  arguments? 

(g)  If    the    author    has  used  abstract  reasoning, 
how  far  does  his  reasoning  agree  with  the  re- 
viewer's   experiences    and    observations? 

(3)  As  many  important  facts  as  possible  should  be 
found  out  about  the  author.        Who's  Who  in   America 
may  be  consulted  for  information,  such  as  the  author's 
education,  his  published  works,  and  the  positions  that 
he  has  held.     The  title  page,  the  preface,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  the  book  often  disclose  important  facts  about 
the  author's  purposes.     In  the  preface,  particularly,  he 
is  likely  to  reveal  some  of  the  phases  of  his  personality, 
and  so  give  significant  explanatory  materials. 

(4 )  A  book  review  will  give  the  full  title  of  the  book, 
together  with  the  subtitle,  if  there  is  one.     The  name 
of  the  publisher,  the  date  of  publication,  and  the  number 
of  the  edition  or  revision  if  there  has  been  more  than 
one,  may  be  given.     The  number  of  pages,  the  arrange- 
ment into  parts,  the  nature  of  the  illustrations  or  charts, 
if  there  are  such,  are  significant  data. 

(5)  The   reviewer   may   compare   the   specific   book 
with  other  published  materials  by  the  same  author,  if 
there  are  such,  noting  particularly  how  the  book  under 
review  relates  to  the  author's  general  trend  of  thought 
and  what  new  tendencies  it  marks.     The  reviewer  may 
also  compare  the  specific  volume  with  at  least  one  other 
book  in  the  same  social  science  field.    If  he  can  compare 


10  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

the  volume  with  all  the  leading  books  on  the  same  subject, 
he  will  be  performing  a  useful  service. 

(6)  By   consulting  published  reviews   of   the  given 
book,  the  reviewer  may  compare  his  own  reactions  to 
the  book  with  the  comments  of  other  reviewers.     For 
his  own  sake  he  will  make  up  his  own  estimate  before 
consulting  other  reviews.     The  Book  Review  Digest  will 
usually  give  digests  of  any  reviews  of  the  book  that 
have  been  published.     Journals,  such  as  the  Survey,  the 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  the  Economic  Review,  the 
Annals:  and  publications,  such  as  the  Review  of  Reviews, 
the    Literary    Digest,    the    Boston    Transcript,    and   the 
New   York  Tribune  may  also  be  consulted  for  reviews. 

(7 )  The  reviewer  needs  to  determine  upon  his  general 
estimate  of  the  book.     Questions,  such  as  these  which 
follow,  will  help  the  reviewer  in  forming  his  estimate. 
What    are    the    book's    strongest    characteristics?    Its 
weakest  characteristics?    Wherein  does  its  contribution 
to  knowledge  lie?     Will  it  become   a  standard  work? 
How  long  will  it  last? 

(8)  The  writing  of  a  book  review  calls  for  a  definite 
plan.    The  order  that  is  followed  may  be  similar  to  the 
plan  which  has  been  suggested  in  the  aforementioned 
seven   steps.     The   reviewer   needs   to   protect   himself 
against   following   the    author   too    slavishly.     He    will 
beware  of  reviewing  the  book  chapter  by  chapter  in  an 
arithmetic  routine.     He  ma}'  group  the  chapters  perhaps 
according  to  his  own  judgment,  leaving  out  any  report 
on  the  contents  of  several  of  the  chapters.     It  is  his 
privilege  to  present  the  material  in  an  order  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  that  pursued  by  the  author.     He  will  not 
attempt  to  present  all  the  valuable  ideas;  he  will  be 
obliged  continually  to  select,  sift,  and  discard. 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  11 

If  the  book  is  unusually  important,  then  the  reviewer 
will  be  forced  to  give  samples  of  the  contents.  He  may 
state  what  the  author  does,  what  themes  he  handles, 
and  how  well  he  treats  these  themes  without  disclosing 
all  the  author's  ideas,  thus  leaving  the  reader  of  the 
review  with  an  urgent  desire  to  read  the  book  himself. 
If  the  book  is  a  manual,  or  encyclopedia,  or  a  volume  of 
source  materials,  the  review  may  indicate  what  types  of 
questions  the  book  will  answer,  without  giving  even  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  answers. 

Throughout  a  book  review  the  student  will  exercise 
his  own  individuality,  not  falling  into  the  trap  of  prestige- 
worshipping  nor  into  the  pit  of  chronic  "knocking." 
His  work  will  be  done  best  if  he  remains  objective  to, 
and  master  of,  the  book.  Pie  will  rarely  quote  more 
than  one  or  two  sentences  at  a  time.  In  fact,  quotations 
are  likely  to  prove  tiresome  to  the  reader.  It  is  better 
to  paraphrase,  giving  proper  credit.  In  making  adverse 
criticisms,  the  reviewer  must  be  cautious,  because  fre- 
quently he  is  not  as  well  posted  on  the  topic  under 
criticism  as  the  author  of  the  book.  The  book 
reviewer  may  utilize  all  the  training  that  he  has  received 
in  making  outlines,  digests,  and  summaries. 

In  preparing  a  review  the  student  may  give  the  review 
orally  to  a  group  of  friends,  a  class,  or  a  seminar  group. 
In  so  doing  he  may  prepare  the  review  in  the  form  of 
notes  on  cards  of  convenient  size.  The  beginner  will 
usually  find  it  helpful  to  rehearse  his  notes  privately 
before  giving  the  review  in  the  presence  of  fellow  students. 
It  is  one  thing  to  reduce  a  set  of  ideas  to  notes,  but  it  is 
a  superior  process  for  the  student  to  nave  the  notes  so 
well  in  mind  that  he  can  give  the  review  clearly,  directly, 
and  without  hesitation  to  his  listeners.  In  using 


12  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

notes,  the  student  should  have  them  so  well  in  mind  and 
should  be  so  full  of  his  subject  that  he  is  free  to  talk  to 
his  listeners  rather  than  be  obliged  to  read  the  notes  or 
seem  to  talk  to  the  notes.  Such  an  oral  exercise  gives 
the  reviewer  a  sense  of  proportion  and  of  values  regarding 
the  materials  under  review  that  can  be  secured  in  no  other 
way.  The  reviewer  is  not  a  cataloguer.  His  work 
is  an  art  involving  a  careful  analysis  and  a  comparative 
synthesis  of  ideas. 

V.  The   Book   Critique.     As   the   name   implies,  the 
critique  is  devoted  to  a  series  of  favorable  and  unfavorable 
judgments.     A  critique  includes  all  that  a  review  does, 
except  that  the  summary  of  the  main  and  subsidiary 
propositions  which  holds  a  major  place  in  a  review  is 
subordinated  in  a  critique.     The  summary  is  presupposed 
but  expressed  only  in  an  incidental  way.     The  critical 
ability  of  the  student  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  specific 
book  from  beginning  to  end. 

The  writer  of  the  book  critique  usualty  interposes  a 
number  of  his  own  ideas  upon  the  subject  with  which  the 
book  deals.  The  ideas  of  the  critique  writer  stand  out 
in  comparison  or  contrast  with  the  ideas  of  the 
author  of  the  book.  A  genuine  critique  is  possible  only 
on  the  part  of  those  who  have  considerable  knowledge 
of  at  least  a  few  subjects  and  who  have  a  certain  trust- 
worthiness of  judgment.  It  is  a  high  type  of  mental 
exercise  which  can  be  attained  to  a  worth-while  degree 
through  persistence. 

VI.  The  Editorial.     The  editorial  on  social  science 
subjects   was   never   more   needed   than   under   present 
national  and  world  conditions.     It  constitutes  a  special 
and  little  considered  type  of  social  science  paper.     Al- 
though in  recent  decades  editorial  writing  has  fallen  into 


Tbe  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  13 

the  shadow,  it  is  nevertheless  of  intrinsic  worth.  The 
editorial  lacks  the  influence  that  it  once  possessed  because 
editors,  as  a  class,  have  changed  from  the  status  of 
newspaper  owner  to  that  of  the  hired  servant  of  a  wealthy 
corporation  which  sells  advertising  primarily,  and  dis- 
tributes news  secondarily.  There  are  still,  fortunately, 
many  editorial  writers  who  are  exceptions  to  the  general 
rule.  However,  it  now  requires  a  capital  of  three  or 
more  million  dollars  to  operate  a  metropolitan  newspaper 
and  a  large  amount  of  advertising  in  order  to  guarantee 
profits.  As  a  result  of  these  and  related  factors,  the 
editorial  writer  is  often  greatly  limited  in  freedom  of 
thought.  The  editorial,  however,  plays  a  leading  role 
in  many  weekly  publications.  Editorial  writing  is  an 
art  which  needs  to  be  revived.  There  is  urgent  need 
that  public  opinion  be  moulded  by  short,  crisp,  unbiased 
editorials  upon  public  questions.  No  one  who  has  once 
appreciated  the  work  of  a  Horace  Greeley  or  a  Charles 
A.  Dana  can  easily  turn  his  back  upon  editorial  writing. 
No  student  in  social  science  should  consider  his  college 
training  complete  who  is  unable  to  express  his  ideas  on 
current  problems  in  editorial  form. 

An  editorial  usually  deals  with  a  single  idea,  principle, 
or  proposition.  It  opens  with  the  attitude  of  mind  or 
mental  position  that  the  average  reader  may  be  expected 
to  hold.  It  then  states  the  new  facts,  ideas,  or  arguments 
that  the  writer  wishes  to  convey  to  his  readers.  It 
concludes  by  summarizing  crisply  the  position  to  which 
the  writer  desires  to  direct  his  readers.  Its  style  is 
direct,  simple,  forceful.  It  is  open,  moving,  and  con- 
vincing. It  is  a  miniature  essay — on  one  idea.  It  is  a 
perfected  mental  invention.  As  a  rule  it  should  not 
exceed  500  words  in  length.  It  ordinarily  deals  with 


14  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

problems  with  which  the  public  finds  it  necessary  to 
come  to  a  decision. 

The  best  editorial  writer  is  one  who  has  established 
a  reputation  of  unbiased  judgment,  not  of  a  person  who 
is  the  votary  of  a  special  class  or  interest.  He  occupies 
a  moral  plane.  Indirectly  if  not  directly  he  improves 
the  quality  of  the  public  conscience.  He  is  a  moral 
creator,  calling  his  readers  to  contribute  by  their  decisions 
to  the  social  conscience  of  their  nation  and  age. 

VII.  The  Term  Paper.  The  term  paper,  or  semester 
paper,  or  year  paper  is  assigned,  not  as  freshmen  or 
sophomores  sometimes  declare,  to  make  the  student 
work,  to  give  him  an  unpleasant  task  to  do,  or  for  con- 
ventional reasons,  but  to  afford  the  student  an  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  his  thinking  ability,  to  express  his 
individuality,  to  manifest  his  originality.  A  second  and 
equally  important  aim  is  to  help  the  student  to  acquire 
standard  methods  in  preparing  social  science  papers. 

The  term  paper  offers  a  student  a  wide  variety  of 
opportunities.  He  can  utilize  all  the  training  that  he 
may  have  received  in  writing  outlines,  abstracts,  reviews, 
critiques,  summaries,  editorials,  and  in  addition,  do  a 
more  or  less  original  piece  of  investigation.  The  term 
paper  may  even  prove  to  be  a  forerunner  of  a  thesis  for 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  At  any  rate,  the  prepara- 
tion of  it  gives  a  training  that  will  be  used  in  countless 
and  unexpected  ways  in  later  life. 

(1)  Choosing  the  Topic.  The  topic  is  the  first  im- 
portant consideration.  A  topic  well  chosen  is  a  term 
paper  at  least  one-third  written.  An  unsuitable  topic 
is  a  cause  of  endless  annoyance,  futile  efforts,  and  serious 
disappointments. 

In  response  to  the  frequently  recurrent  request:    "You 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  15 

suggest  a  topic  for  me  to  write  on,"  the  instructor  ordi- 
narily will  postpone  bis  answer.  A  student  who  is 
approaching  maturity — even  though  he  has  had  only  an 
introduction  of  a  few  weeks  to  social  science— must 
have  given  a  little  thought  from  time  to  time  to  a  few, 
at  least,  of  the  pressing  social  issues  of  the  day.  If  the 
instructor  chooses  a  topic  for  a  student  with  whom  he 
holds  only  a  brief  or  general  acquaintance,  he  may 
choose  one  outside  the  student's  range  of  interests.  If 
the  student  makes  the  choice,  carefully  guarding  himself 
against  seJecting  a  topic  that  appeals  merely  to  his 
passing  fancy,  he  will  have  a  problem  for  investigation 
that  lies  within  the  boundaries  of  his  past  thinking, 
and  hence  one  upon  which  he  will  be  able,  probably,  to 
do  his  best  thinking.  Furthermore,  he  will  have  relied 
upon  and  exercised  his  own  mental  processes  rather  than 
have  leaned  upon  the  aid  of  another  person.  The  best 
topic  as  a  rule  is  one  upon  which  the  student  already 
possesses  a  thorough  background,  and  which  he  can 
investigate  at  close  range. 

The  student,  hence,  should  search  his  own  mind  for 
appropriate  topics,  with  the  aid  of  such  hints  as  he  may 
gather  for  himself  from  the  class  discussions,  the  lectures 
in  the  specific  course  of  study,  and  the  text  book  and 
collateral  books  in  the  field  in  which  the  term  paper  has 
been  assigned.  By  this  exercise  many  problems  will  be 
suggested  to  the  student.  These  will  challenge  his  at- 
tention, intellectual  curiosity,  and  fundamental  inter- 
ests. If  three  or  more  of  these  questions  are  accurately 
worded  and  written  out  in  topical  form,  the  student  will 
have  mastered  the  first  step  in  attaining  skill  in  writing 
a  social  science  term  paper.  The  simple  process  of 


16  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

formulating  in  words  and  on  paper  of  such  topics  in- 
variably results  in  progress. 

With  the  student's  list  of  carefully  framed  topics 
before  him,  the  work  of  the  instructor  begins.  The 
teacher  will  point  out  which  of  the  suggested  problems 
will  be  the  best  for  the  student  to  work  on,  or  he  may 
advise  changes  in  the  phraseology  of  some  one  of  the 
themes  which  will  make  it  practicable. 

There  are  three  main  classes  of  topics  for  term  papers: 
(a)  library  topics,  (b)  field  topics,  and  (c)  research 
topics.  These  do  not  represent  different  types,  but 
different  stages  on  an  ascending  scale  of  difficulty  and 
importance,  (a)  For  a  beginner  the  library  topic  is  the 
most  logical.  The  material  is  near  at  hand  and  easy 
to  obtain.  The  best  data  are  to  be  found  in  a  few  books 
and  magazines.  The  time  of  the  student  is  conserved 
because  the  library  contains  the  necessary  equipment. 
Inasmuch  as  the  student  must  first  acquaint  himself 
with  the  published  studies  on  any  field  work  or  advanced 
research  problem,  with  the  backgrounds  of  such  problems, 
and  with  the  technique  for  undertaking  first  hand  in- 
vestigations, it  often  turns  out  that  the  library  topic  is 
simply  the  preliminary  phase  of  a  field  work  or  advanced 
research  topic. 

(b)  Field  work  topics  call  for  a  certain  maturity 
of  judgment  and  poise  in  meeting  persons  of  experience. 
Employers  and  employees,  landlords  and  tenants,  natives 
and  aliens  must  be  met  and  disarmed  of  suspicion,  and 
given  favorable  impressions,  or  the  inquiry  will  fail. 
A  large  range  of  secondary  but  vital  issues  must  often 
be  met  with  despatch.  The  persons  who  are  under 
examination  are  often  offended  by  a  single  naive  question 
or  remark  by  the  well-intentioned  but  unsophisticated 


Tbe  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  17 

inquirer;  as  a  result,  the  investigation  comes  to  naught 
and  an  unwholesome  impression  is  given  of.  social  science. 

Field  topics  should  be  chosen  only  by  persons  who 
are  versatile  in  methods,  who  have  plenty  of  time,  and 
who  have  willing  friends  who  are  or  have  been  employed 
in  the  proposed  field  of  study,  or  who  themselves  have 
been  or  are  so  employed.  The  student  should  not 
contemplate  field  work  as  a  rule  until  his  senior  year  in 
college,  although  juniors  often  do  satisfactorily.  Field 
work  requires  the  exercise  of  a  balanced  judgment,  and 
long  and  patient  seeking  for  and  verification  of  data. 
By  such  methods  new  facts  may  be  discovered,  and  new 
theories  proved  or  disproved. 

(c)  The  analyses  of  advanced  research  topics  in 
social  science  require  a  thorough  preparation  in  the 
study  of  the  direct  and  foundational  literature,  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  technique  of  field  work  and  of  in- 
vestigational  procedure,  scientific  knowledge  of  personal 
and  institutional  life,  and  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and  volitions  of  ordinary  human 
beings.  Such  studies  are  usually  postgraduate  in  char- 
acter. Only  minds  with  training  and  fertile  character- 
istics should  enter  here.  The  findings  occasionally  may 
lead  to  improvements  in  social  organization  or  the  social 
processes.  This  type  of  investigation  often  produces 
results  that  are  worthy  of  publication  in  one  of  the 
social  science  journals. 

The  amateur,  then,  will  be  wise  if  he  chooses  a  library 
topic.  In  so  doing,  however,  he  is  likely  to  select  one 
of  too  general  and  too  complex  a  nature.  Consequently, 
the  materials  will  be  illimitable  and  bewildering;  the 
student  will  be  swamped.  He  will  become  discouraged, 
lose  himself  in  the  mass  of  details,  or  merely  skim  the 


18  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

surface  and  produce  a  superficial  term  paper.  "Child 
Welfare"  is  a  theme  which  is  too  extensive.  "Child 
Welfare  in  the  United  States"  is  likewise  too  far-reaching. 
These  and  similar  comprehensive  subjects  need  to  be 
modified  and  narrowed  in  scope.  Among  illustrations  of 
practicable  topics  for  term  papers  the  following  themes 
will  be  satisfactory: 

1.  The  Effects  of  Child  Labor. 

2.  The  Causes  of  Juvenile  Delinquency. 

3.  The  George  Junior  Republic  Idea. 

4.  The  Social  Advantages  of  Rural  Life. 

Later,  when  the  student  has  had  more  training,  he 
may  seek,  for  example,  to  determine  the  causes  of  de- 
linquency among  100  boys  who  have  appeared  in  the 
local  juvenile  court  (field  topic),  or  still  later,  he  may 
work  out  an  educational  theory  for  decreasing  juvenile 
delinquency  (theoretical  topic). 

(2)  Making  the  Term  Paper  Outline.  The  "outline" 
which  was  discussed  in  the  first  pages  of  this  booklet 
referred  to  the  process  of  analyzing  the  written  ideas  of 
another  person.  That  process  is  an  essential  part,  in  a 
modified  way,  of  making  a  term  paper  outline.  In  the 
latter  connection  the  outline  refers  to  the  process  of 
analyzing  one's  own  thoughts  on  a  specific  theme  that 
has  not  yet  been  reduced  to  writing.  This  process  as 
a  rule  is  more  difficult  than  outlining  the  printed  thought 
of  some  other  individual.  The  student  finds  the  process 
difficult  because  the  outline  usually  must  be  made  of  a 
subject  through  which  he  has  not  yet  thought  and  upon 
which  he  has  inadequate  information. 

The  outline  for  a  term  paper  is  important  because  it 
indicates  the  plan  of  work.  "I  always  write  my  paper 
first  and  the  outline  last,"  said  a  college  student,  with 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  19 

an  evident  degree  of  pride.  Such  a  method  or  lack  of 
method,  however,  is  not  to  be  encouraged.  It  indicates, 
perhaps,  the  work  of  a  genius;  or  more  likely,  that  of 
an  unharnessed,  slatternly  mind. 

After  tne  topic  has  been  determined  upon,  the  pupil 
should  force  himself — at  first,  it  will  be  a  distinct  effort — 
to  inventory  his  own  mind  upon  the  topic  which  he  has 
chosen.  If  the  topic  is  one  in  which  he  has  been  inter- 
ested for  some  time,  the  number  of  ideas  that  he  has  un- 
consciously, inchoately  accumulated  upon  the  ques- 
tion, will  upon  examination,  often  prove  to  be  amazing. 
These  miscellaneous  thoughts  need  to  be  arranged  in 
some  kind  of  logical  order.  The  resultant  outline  will 
be  preliminary,  unsatisfactory,  and  subject  to  change, 
but  it  will  serve  the  useful  purpose  of  being  a  working 
hypothesis.  It  will  be  a  tentative  plan  by  which  to 
classify  facts.  It  will  protect  the  student  from  becoming 
haphazard  in  his  thinking  upon  the  topic.  The  process 
of  making  a  proper  outline  is  so  significant  that  tne  wise 
student  will  perfect  himself  through  practice  in  this 
technique.  He  will  write  out  many  outlines  on  various 
topics  in  which  he  is  interested.  If  an  outline  is  weak, 
the  term  paper  will  likely  be  of  little  merit. 

The  next  step  is  to  read  and  to  ask  questions  on  the 
chosen  topic.  Then,  when  the  outline  is  revised,  changes 
and  improvements  will  follow.  It  is  surprising  how  the 
mere  mechanical  copying  of  an  outline,  if  it  is  done 
thoughtfully,  will  materialize  in  valuable  improvements 
in  it. 

No  term  paper  outline  is  ever  more  than  tentative. 
When  it  is  drawn  up  finally  and  the  paper  is  written 
according  to  its  plan,  it  will  prove,  even  then,  inadequate. 
The  outline  for  a  term  paper  is  an  instrument  of  relative 


20  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

value — moving  presumably  from  improvement  to  im- 
provement. It  serves  the  purposes  of  an  organized 
survey  at  each  step  of  the  student's  thinking  on  the 
problem  in  mind;  it  represents  at  each  stage  in  its  develop- 
ment the  best  plan  of  attack. 

The  interactions  between  the  outline  for  a  term  paper 
and  one's  materials  on  a  question  are  continual  and 
progressive.  To  make  or  reconstruct  the  outline  suggests 
new  ideas  for  the  text  of  the  paper;  and  to  write  sections 
of  the  text  gives  rise  to  novel  and  improved  changes  in 
the  outline.  It  is  this  interstimulation  between  outline 
and  content  that  spells  progress.  The  outline  is  never 
completed.  It  is  never  an  end  in  itself.  It  is  always 
"in  process,"  a  means,  a  tool  for  stimulating  organization 
and  invention,  and  an  instrument  for  making  progress 
in  writing. 

In  its  final  form,  from  which  the  term  paper  is  written, 
the  outline  may  well  serve  as  a  table  of  contents.  For 
a  paper  of  2,500  words,  the  table  of  contents  need  not 
cover  more  than  two  hand  written  pages.  It  may 
state  the  main  headings  and  two  or  more  sub-headings 
under  each  of  the  major  points.  The  outline  in  the  form 
of  a  table  of  contents  is  illustrated  herewith;  variations 
from  this  form,  of  course,  will  be  made  freely. 

Table  of  contents  for  a  paper  on  "The  Social  Advantages 
of  Rural  Life": 

I.    Introduction 

1.  Reasons  for  choosing  the  topic. 

2.  Scope  of  the  topic. 

II.     Advantages  of  Outdoor  Living. 

1.  Physical  health  conserved. 

2.  Nerves  remain  un jaded. 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  21 

III.  Advantages  of  Rural  Family  Life. 

1.  Unified  home  life. 

2.  Sane  training  for  children. 

IV.  Influences  and  Development  of  Personality. 

1.  Freedom  from  social  conventions. 

2.  Opportunities  for  leadership. 
V.     Conclusions. 

(3)  Gathering  the  Data.  In  preparing  a  term  paper 
on  a  library  topic  the  student  should  gather  the  data, 
not  in  a  hit-and-miss  fashion,  but  according  to  a  system. 
Many  students  simply  use  a  notebook,  writing  down 
notes  without  any  preconceived  plan.  Hence,  they 
waste  time,  energy,  and  paper.  Others  find  that  cards 
or  slips  of  paper  4x6  inches  in  size,  to  be  the  simplest 
technique.  These,  however,  are  larger  than  necessary 
for  making  separate  bibliographic  notes,  and  are  too 
small  for  the  final  draft  of  the  paper. 

(a)  A  Duplex  Card  System.  The  present  writer, 
after  experimenting  in  several  directions,  has  found  that 
a  duplex  system  for  gathering  materials  is  often  the  most 
satisfactory.  This  system  includes  cards,  preferably 
3x5  inches  in  size,  and  a  loose-leaf  notebook  carrying 
paper  of  letter  size,  i.e.,  8x11  inches.  When  the  student 
undertakes  an  extensive  piece  of  work,  slips  of  paper 
are  superior  to  cards,  because  they  are  less  bulky,  less 
heavy,  less  costly,  and  at  the  same  time,  they  are  suffi- 
ciently durable.  Cards  of  one  color  are  used  for  col- 
lecting bibliographic  references;  cards  of  another  color 
are  useful  in  writing  down  ideas  and  suggestions  that 
come  to  the  student  in  the  course  of  his  reading  or  mis- 
cellaneously, and  which  require  only  small  space.  The 
3x5  cards  upon  which  the  main  data,  "as  distinguished 
from  the  bibliographic  data,  are  noted,  may  best  be  ar- 


22  Tbe  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

ranged  according  to  the  leading  headings  of  the  outline. 
In  this  way  related  materials  will  be  kept  together  in  an 
orderly  way. 

In  conjunction  with  the  cards,  paper  of  letter  size, 
or  of  somewhat  smaller  size,  and  kept  in  a  loose-leaf 
notebook,  will  serve  for  making  extensive  digests,  for 
copying  long  excerpts,  for  keeping  clippings  in  pasted 
form,  and  for  use  in  writing  the  various  drafts  of  the 
paper,  section  by  section.  At  the  same  time  it  is  uniform 
in  size  with  the  paper  upon  which  the  term  paper  should 
finally  be  written  or  typewritten. 

(b)  The  Bibliography.  Cards  are  advisable  in  mak- 
ing bibliographies.  They  are  convenient  in  size.  They 
can  be  handled  with  ease;  they  can  be  kept  according 
to  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  They  are  too  small, 
however,  for  use  in  copying  voluminous  data.  Similarly, 
letter  size  paper  is  too  large,  and  hence  wasteful,  when 
single  bibliographic  notes  are  being  made  or  when  isolated 
facts  are  being  noted.  In  the  long  run  the  duplex  system 
is  likely  to  be  the  more  satisfactory  than  either  the  cards 
or  the  paper  alone.  Indexes  (hand  made)  for  both 
the  cards  and  the  letter  size  paper  will  be  useful  in  keeping 
the  bibliographic  data  and  the  main  body  of  data  classified 
according  to  the  leading  headings  of  the  outline. 

The  bibliographic  references  should  be  kept  in  uniform 
style.  The  references  to  books  and  documents  may  be 
made  in  the  following  order :  Author's  name,  his  initials, 
title  of  book  underscored,  publisher's  name,  place  and 
date  of  publication,  chapters  or  pages  of  the  related 
materials.  If  the  reference  is  to  an  article,  the  order 
may  be  the  following:  Author's  name,  his  initials,  title 
of  article  in  quotation  marks,  name  of  magazine  abbre- 
viated and  underscored,  volume  of  magazine  and  pages 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  23 

of  the  article.  If  the  issue  of  the  magazine  to  which 
reference  is  made  is  current  and  hence  unbound,  the 
bibliographic  citation  may  be  given  by  date  and  pages. 
The  titles  of  pamphlets  and  bulletins  may  be  treated 
as  articles  rather  than  as  books,  that  is,  set  off  by 
quotation  marks  rather  than  underscored.  The  student 
cannot  be  too  careful  in  regard  to  securing  accuracy 
and  uniformity  in  punctuation.  The  student's  attitude 
toward  such  minor  matters  as  commas  is  often  indicative 
of  the  quality  of  all  his  work.  " Attention  to  details" 
is  a  necessary  slogan  for  any  student  in  preparing  a 
social  science  paper.  The  following  samples  of  biblio- 
graphic references  will  serve  as  guides. 

Blackmar,  F.  W.,  "Leadership  in  Social  Reform," 
Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  XVI:  626-33. 

Butler,  F.  C.,  '"Community  Organization,"  Bui.,  1919, 
No.  76,  Dept.  of  the  Interior,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Outlines  of  Economics,  Macmillan,  New 
York,  1917,  Chs.  Ill,  IV,  (or  pp.  33-60). 

Howard,  G.  E.,  "Alcohol  and  Crime:  A  Study  of 
Social  Causation,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  July,  1918, 
pp.  61-80. 

By  keeping  the  cards  in  alphabetical  order  the  final 
bibliography  can  be  made  with  a  minimum  of  effort. 
The  final  bibliography,  like  the  cards,  should  be  arranged 
alphabetically.  The  bibliography  bears  on  its  face  the 
tell-tale  degree  to  which  the  student  has  been  thorough, 
or  careless.  A  successfully-made  bibliography  requires 
patient,  skillful  effort.  It  is  a  worth-while  achievement 
to  bring  together  the  leading  references  to  everything 
of  value  that  has  appeared  in  print  on  the  specific  topic. 


24  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

It  gives  the  student  a  dependable  camping  ground  from 
which  to  climb  to  new  regions  of  thought. 

The  first  place  in  which  to  search  for  bibliographic 
data  is  in  the  card  catalogues  of  the  libraries — college, 
city,  special;  these  will  give  access  to  books  and  docu- 
ments. The  second  storehouse  that  is  available  to  the 
student  in  any  field  is  the  series  of  volumes  known  as 
the  Reader's  Guide.  For  articles  that  were  published 
several  years  ago,  Poole's  Index  will  give  the  exact  refer- 
ences. A  library  assistant  will  explain  to  the  uninitiated 
the  use  of  these  convenient  reference  series. 

Often  the  inquirer  will  find  himself  swamped  by  the 
large  number  of  references  to  articles  in  the  Reader's 
Guide  upon  his  topic;  but  he  can  soon  acquire  facility  in 
detecting  the  metal-laden  ores.  He  should  center  atten- 
tion upon  those  articles  which  have  been  printed  in  the 
standard  social  science  journals,  such  as  the  American 
Journal  of  Sociology,  the  Economic  Journal,  the  American 
Historical  Review,  the  Political  Science  Quarterly,  the 
International  Journal  of  Ethics,  Religious  Education,  and 
so  forth.  The  student  can  obtain  the  rating  of  a  journal 
by  inquiring  of  his  instructor;  and  his  own  experience 
in  the  use  of  journals  will  develop  his  ability  to  judge 
of  values.  The  student  of  elementary  applied  sociology 
and  of  social  work  will  find  the  Survey  to  be  his  most 
useful  mine  of  current  information.  Judicious  use  may 
be  made  of  that  class  of  magazines  which  is  semi-scientific 
and  semi-popular,  such  as:  the  North  American  Review, 
the  World's  Work,  the  Outlook,  the  Independent,  the 
New  Republic.  Articles  of  one  or  two  pages  in  length 
only,  articles  of  any  length  in  the  newspapers  and  the 
popular  weeklies,  unsigned  articles  and  editorials  should 
be  treated  with  caution  and  scrutiny.  Occasionally, 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  25 

however,  a  brief,  unsigned  article  or  editorial  of  a  page 
in  length  will  contain  a  new  idea  of  first  magnitude; 
length  is  not  necessarily  a  criterion  of  quality. 

As  the  student  proceeds  in  making  reading  acquaint- 
ances, he  will  note  and  examine  articles  by  the  standard 
authorities  in  the  various  social  science  fields.  For 
example,  in  sociology  proper,  articles  bearing  the  signa- 
ture of  Giddings,  Small,  Ross,  Howard,  Blackmar, 
Cooley,  Dealey,  Ellwood,  Gillette,  Hayes,  or  others  of 
similar  high  standing,  will  instantly  command  attention. 
Other  names  will  come  to  signify  peculiar  biases  or  un- 
reliability. The  student,  through  experience,  learns  to 
evaluate  articles,  even  of  authorities.  He  will  learn  not 
to  accept  new  ideas  uncritically. 

(c)  Case  Study.     In  gathering  data  for  a  field  work 
topic,  as  distinguished  from  a  library  topic,  the  student 
may  use  either  the  case  study  method,   the  sampling 
method,  or  the  survey  method.     Under  any  one  of  these 
methods,  he  will  begin  by  reading  everything  that  has 
been  printed  on  the  field  work  topic  and  by  keeping 
systematically  arranged  notes  on  this  reading.     He  will 
wish   to   know  what  has  already  been  done  by  other 
investigators  in  his  specific  field  of  study.     By  so  doing, 
he  can  plan  his  own  undertaking  wisely. 

Case  study  is  the  method  of  examining  specifically, 
and  in  detail,  all  the  individuals,  families,  or  social 
units  that  are  included  under  the  topic.  This  is  the 
most  thorough  method  known  to  social  science.  It  can 
be  used  where  the  number  of  units  is  small  or  where 
there  is  a  large  number  of  trained  investigators  working 
together. 

(d)  Sampling.      Sampling   is   often   used   when   the 
number  of  cases,  or  social  units,  under  study  is  large  and 


26  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

where  the  number  of  investigators  is  small.  Every 
tenth  item,  for  example,  may  be  sampled,  that  is,  all  the 
facts  are  secured  for  every  tenth  case  on  the  assumption 
that  the  results  obtained  in  this  way  will  represent, 
with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy,  the  entire  class 
or  total  number.  Another  form  of  sampling  is  to  number 
in  a  consecutive  way  all  the  cases,  to  put  the  numbers 
on  separate  slips  of  paper,  and  shaking  them  up  together, 
to  draw  out  ten  per  cent,  for  example,  of  the  slips,  and 
to  study  the  cases  so  drawn. 

(e)  The  Survey.  The  social  survey  attempts  to 
cover  an  entire  field  of  study  by  using  a  large  number  of 
workers,  as  well  as  the  schedule  or  questionnaire  for 
standardizing  the  data.  The  procedure  is  an  intensifi- 
cation of  the  census  method.  Although  the  social 
survey  is  the  best  way  to  gather  facts  in  a  wholesale  man- 
ner about  a  mass  of  human  phenomena,  its  statistical 
nature  gives  the  results  a  certain  formal  character  which 
is  unsatisfactory.  The  chances  of  inadequate  or  false 
interpretation  of  the  data  are  manifold.  Errors  often 
cannot  be  avoided;  they  may  be  so  numerous  that  the 
results  are  invalidated. 

The  student  will  do  well  to  familiarize  himself  with 
the  simpler  points  of  statistical  science.  He  will  learn 
to  distinguish  between  types  or  averages,  modes,  and 
mediums.  He  will  familiarize  himself  with  frequency 
tables,  index  numbers,  skewness,  coefficient  of  correlation. 
An  authoritative  book  on  statistics,  such  as  W.  I.  King's 
Elements  of  Statistical  Method,  will  answer  the  student's 
questions  satisfactorily.  Moreover,  the  student  will  be 
amply  repaid  for  giving  careful  attention  to  the  published 
results  of  social  surveys,  such  as  the  Springfield  Survey, 
the  findings  of  which  were  printed  in  a  series  of  pamphlets. 


Tbf  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  27 

The  list  of  published  surveys  is  steadily  growing  longer 
and  furnishes  a  great  variety  of  useful  suggestions  to 
the  ambitious  student. 

(f)  The    First   Interview.     In   ordinary   field   work 
investigation,  the  first  interview  is  all-important.     By  it 
the   student   succeeds   or   fails.     If   he    commands   the 
confidence  and  good  will  of  the  person  who  is  interviewed, 
he  will  have  little  difficulty  in  succeeding.     If  he  fails 
to  make  a  favorable  impression,  he  remains  a  stranger, 
and  can  scarcely  hope  to  obtain  reliable  data.     No  in- 
dividual or  representative  of  an  institution  wishes  to 
tell  his  private  affairs  or  the  affairs  of  an  institution 
to  a  stranger  or  to  a  self-conscious,  bold,  or  awkward 
novice.     An  appeal  must  be  made  which  will  be  genuine 
in  the  eyes  of  the  one  who  is  interviewed.     Often,   a 
letter  of  introduction  will  open  the  way,  but  even  then 
the  interviewer  mVist  make   a  favorable  impression  if 
he  would  be   successful.    The  more  nearly  the  inter- 
viewer can  put  himself  in  the  position  of  the  interviewed 
the  greater  will  be  his  chances  of  success. 

(g)  The  Schedule.     The  schedule  is   an  important 
instrument   of   field   work   investigation.     Whether   the 
number  of  cases  that  are  being  studied  is  five,  or  ten 
thousand,   the   schedule   is   essential   for   obtaining   the 
best  results.     In  no  other  way  can  the  study  be  stand- 
ardized.    In  no  other  way  can  it  be  objectified,  that  is, 
freed  from  the  student's  personal  opinions. 

The  schedule  contains  a  list  of  terms  which  stand  for 
questions  to  which  the  student  wishes  to  secure  answers. 
The  terms  are  arranged  upon  a  light-weight  cardboard 
of  convenient  size  for  carrying  in  the  notebook,  with 
spaces  in  which  the  student  can  write  his  observations. 
As  a  rule,  the  schedule  should  not  be  produced  during 


28  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

an  interview.     Such  a  procedure  will  usually  prejudice 

the  person  who  is  being  interviewed.  Because  of  lack 

of  space,  an  illustration  of  only  the  simplest  kind  of 
schedule  will  be  given  here. 

Schedules  on  Immigrants  in  Night  Schools 

Sex Race Age Occupation.... 

Education  in  home  country 

Why  migrate  to  United  States 

Years  in  U.  S Years  in  Los  Angeles 

First  papers Second  papers Political  party 

Why  like  U.  S 

Why  disappointed  in  U.  S 

Idea  of  democracy 

How  attracted  to  night  school 

Why  attending  night  school 

How  may  others  be  interested  in  night  school? 

How  may  night  school  be  improved?  

(h)  The  Questionnaire.  The  questionnaire  is  a 
useful  tool  in  obtaining  information  from  a  distance. 
It  differs  from  the  schedule  in  that  it  is  filled  out  by  the 
person  who  is  being  questioned,  while  the  schedule  is 
filled  out  by  the  investigator.  Hence,  the  questionnaire 
is  usually  simple  and  more  clearly  worded  than  the 
schedule.  The  questions  must  be  phrased  so  as  to  be 
subject  to  only  one  interpretation  each.  As  a  rule,  the 
questions  are  few  in  number.  Otherwise,  the  person 
who  is  questioned  will  be  tempted  to  postpone  or  to 
neglect  entirely  the  answering  of  the  questions.  If 
possible,  the  questions  should  be  framed  so  as  to  call 
for  either  affirmative  or  negative  answers.  The  questions 
should  not  be  too  inquisitive  and  should  not  require 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  29 

subjective  answers.     It  is  well  to  enclose  a  stamped, 
self-addressed  envelope  with  each  questionnaire. 

Whatever  can  be  done  to  make  the  task  of  the  ques- 
tionee  as  easy  as  possible  should  not  be  neglected,  because 
one  of  the  difficulties  is  to  secure  a  large  percentage  of 
replies.  To  the  extent  that  no  replies  are  received  the 
total  results  are  invalidated. 

Questionnaire  on  the  Teaching  of  Social  Problems  Courses 
in  High  Schools 

1.  Is  a  course  in  social  problems,  or  closely  related  sub- 

ject, given  in  your  high  school? 

2.  If  so,  what  text  is  used? 

3.  In  what  year  of  the  high  school  course  is  such  subject 

taught? 

4.  Is  it  required  or  elective? 

5.  Has  it  been  a  success? 

6.  Are  you  favorable  to  such  subjects  in  the  high  school 

curriculum? 

(4)  Determining  the  Form  and  Content.  In 
writing  the  final  draft  of  the  term  paper  the  student  will 
decide  upon  the  length  before  he  begins,  and  will  see 
that  a  proper  proportion  is  maintained  between  the 
different  sections  of  the  paper.  He  will  use  a  natural, 
progressive,  straight-forward  style.  A  variety  in  the 
choice  of  words  is  highly  desirable.  On  the  other  hand, 
flowery  language  and  mixed  metaphors  will  be  avoided. 
Hackneyed  or  trite  phrases  will  be  eliminated.  Slang 
will  be  shunned,  because  as  a  rule  it  is  indicative  of  a 
small  vocabulary  and  lack  of  culture.  A  long  word  will 
not  be  used  when  a  short  one  will  suffice. 

For  every  idea  there  is  a  best,  a  most  appropriate 
word  or  term.  It  is  worth  while  to  consult  the  dictionary 


30  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

frequently  as  a  means  of  making  the  correct  choice  of 
words.  A  sense  of  pride  may  be  taken  in  acquiring  a 
clear,  effective  style,  in  keeping  the  tenses  of  the  verbs 
uniform,  in  introducing  new  words,  similes,  and  other 
figures  of  speech,  providing  the  variations  are  natural 
and  fitting.  No  hesitation  need  be  shown  in  rewriting 
particularly  difficult  paragraphs  several  times,  because 
improvements  will  probably  accompany  each  revision. 
Sometimes  the  student's  best  ideas  will  arise  only  when 
he  is  engaged  in  actual  writing.  It  is  also  worth  while 
to  study  the  style  of  writers  of  good  English.  The 
practice  of  writing  verse  will  often  increase  one's  vocabu- 
lary and  give  a  more  musical  style.  It  is  even  valuable 
to  spend  some  time  in  reading  good  poetry  aloud,  because 
the  ear  often  catches  what  the  eye  fails  to  perceive, 
and  because  a  trained  ear  is  invaluable  for  the  best  writing. 
Above  all  things  else,  the  student  will  leave  no  traces  of 
carelessness  in  style. 

The  term  paper  when  submitted  to  the  instructor  may 
be  either  hand  written  or  typewritten.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  paper  be  typed;  legible  hand  writing  in  ink, 
done  neatly,  with  uniformity,  and  without  hurry,  will 
meet  ordinary  requirements. 

It  is  preferable  that  the  final  draft  for  the  instructor 
be  written  on  paper  of  letter  size,  8x11  inches.  A 
margin  of  at  least  one  and  one-quarter  inches  at  the  top 
and  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  of  one-half  inch  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page  is  necessary.  A  substantial  quality 
of  writing  paper  is  a  minimum  requirement.  Typewritten 
material  should  be  double-spaced,  unless  several  lines  of 
material  are  quoted — when  single  spacing  becomes  the 
rule. 


Tbe  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  31 

The  general  sequence  in  the  paper  will  ordinarily  be 
as  follows: 

1.  Title  page. 

2.  Table  of  contents. 

3.  Text  of  the  paper. 

4.  Bibliography. 

The  title  page  gives  the  title,  capitalized,  of  the  paper, 
the  name  and  number  of  the  course  of  study  for  which 
the  paper  is  written,  the  name  of  the  college  or  university, 
and  the  date  of  finishing  the  work.  A  well  balanced 
form  is  pleasing. 

(Title  Page) 
THE  CAUSES  OF  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 

By  John  Jones 

Written  for  Sociology  134,  Educational  Sociology 

University  of  Southern  California 

Instructor,  E.  J.  Lickley 

December  10,  1920 

The  introductory  paragraphs  are  best  when  brief. 
The  trained  writer  does  not  allow  himself  to  ramble 
on  at  length;  he  states  precisely  in  brisk  sentences,  the 
points  that  are  necessary  for  an  understanding  of  the 
materials  which  follow.  Nothing  bores  or  prejudices  a 
reader  like  a  drawn-out  introduction. 

The  main  text  of  the  paper  should  build  fact  upon  fact 
in  as  logical  an  order  as  possible.  The  truth  must  never 
be  strained  for  sake  of  effect.  In  general,  a  climactic 
order  should  be  established.  At  least  those  climaxes 
will  be  built  up  that  are  inherent  in  the  natural  sequence 
of  facts.  Whenever  the  student  is  reasonably  sure  of 
his  ground  he  may  criticise  his  materials,  favorably  and 
unfavorably.  At  every  turn  he  masters  his  data. 


32  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

The  closing  paragraphs  may  include  a  brief  summary 
of  the  territory  that  has  been  covered.  The  final  inter- 
pretations are  exceedingly  important.  The  drawing  of 
concluding  principles  calls  for  the  student's  best  efforts. 
At  this  point  the  average  student  fails.  He  may  gather 
an  immense  amount  of  data,  and  present  it  logically  well. 
Then,  he  may  conclude  his  paper  with  a  few  meaningless 
generalizations  or  insipid  observations.  He  needs  to 
reserve  his  mental  effort  for  the  final  stretch.  If  he  fails 
here,  his  earlier  good  work  will  be  greatly  discounted. 
He  needs  plenty  of  time  to  work  over  and  over  the  final 
interpretations  and  conclusions.  Here,  there  occurs  the 
student's  supreme  opportunity  for  manifesting  his  ability. 
To  throw  a  group  of  facts  together  or  to  compile  ideas 
from  other  people's  minds  is  a  very  simple  piece  of  mental 
work.  Real  brain  power,  patience,  long  and  hard  work 
are  required  in  order  to  make  a  worthy  conclusion. 

At  least  a  few  tables  of  facts  add  greatly  to  the  value 
of  a  term  paper.  They  often  constitute  the  prima  facie 
evidence  of  the  paper's  worth.  Everything  that  the 
student  may  say  will  often  be  rated  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  facts,  arranged  in  tabular  form.  A  table 
should  be  clearly  labeled  and  presented  in  a  balanced 
fashion. 

Tables  are  often  made  interesting  by  the  use  of  graphs 
or  charts.  The  graph  or  chart  is  a  visualization  of  a 
table  of  facts.  It  is  worth  while  to  train  one's  self  in 
making  graphs  and  charts.  The  technique  of  this  process 
is  explained  in  books,  such  as  King's  Elements  of  Sta- 
tistical Method.  Another  work  of  reference  in  this  con- 
nection is  Brinton's  Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts. 

In  writing  the  paper,  each  leading  section  should  be 
introduced  by  its  proper  heading,  coinciding  with  the 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  33 

headings  in  the  outline  or  table  of  contents.  The  be- 
ginning of  each  leading  section  may  be  separated  by  an 
inch  of  space  from  the  conclusion  of  the  preceding  main 
section. 

A  special  effort  should  be  made  to  give  credit  to  the 
authorities  that  are  quoted  or  cited.  Whenever  the 
conclusions  of  some  authority  are  quoted  or  facts  from 
some  special  piece  of  research  are  used,  a  small  Arabic 
numeral  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  quotation 
or  citation,  slightly  elevated,  and  repeated  .at  the  foot 
of  the  page.  The  footnote  itself  may  be  set  off  from 
the  text  above  it,  either  by  an  extra  space  or  by  a  heavy 
line.  The  footnote  numerals  may  begin  with  an  Arabic 
numeral  one  on  each  page  or  they  may  begin  at  one 
with  the  first  footnote  reference  and  run  consecutively 
to  the  end  of  the  paper  without  any  breaks  in  the  num- 
bering. Oftentimes,  the  latter  method  is  preferable. 

As  a  rule,  the  footnote  explanation  gives  the  name 
of  the  authority  who  is  quoted  or  cited,  the  title  of  the 
book,  underscored  (or  of  the  article,  and  of  the  maga- 
zine, abbreviated  and  underscored;  together  with  the 
date  of  the  magazine1),  and  the  pages.2  If  the  name 
of  the  authority  is  mentioned  in  the  context  of  the 
paper,  such  as  the  name,  for  example,  of  C.  H.  Cooley3 
it  need  not  be  repeated  in  the  footnote.  If  a  re- 
ference is  made  a  second  or  third  time  to  a  particular 
book  or  article  in  immediate  succession,  the  ab- 
breviation, ibid.,  underscored,  together  with  the 
pages  of  the  new  reference  should  appear;  it]  is 
not  necessary  to  repeat  the  whole  reference  in  the  foot- 
note.4 If  the  second  or  third  reference  to  a  specific 
book  or  article  is  not  made  immediately  but  two  or  three 
pages  later,  then,  the  abbreviation,  op.  cit.,  with  the 


34  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

necessary  page  reference  should  be  given.5  Explanations 
and  rules  such  as  those  given  in  the  foregoing  lines  are 
worthy  of  being  mastered.  The  footnote  forms  that 
are  used  in  standard  works,  such  as  Ely's  Outlines  of 
Economics,  or  Blackmar  and  Gillin's  Outlines  of  Sociology 
may  be  studied  with  care.  The  student  may  obtain 
further  assistance  by  consulting  frequently  a  guide  book, 
such  as  A  Manual  for  Writers.6  The  use  of  footnotes 
in  this  paragraph  will  illustrate  the  points  that  the 

paragraph  has  covered. 

1.  (For  example)  C.  A.  Ellwood,  "Education  for  Citizenship  in 
a  Democracy,"  Amer.  Jour,  of  Sociology,  July,  1920,  p.  75. 

2.  (For  example)  E.  A.  Ross,  Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  96. 

3.  (For  example)  "Reflections  upon  the  Sociology  of  Herbert 
Spencer/'  Amer.  four,  of  Sociology,  Sept.  1920,  p.  130. 

4.  (For  example)  Ibid.,  p.  133. 

5.  (For  example)  Op.  Cit.,  p.  138. 

6.  Manly  and  Powell,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1917. 

The  student  should  aim  constantly  at  accuracy  in 
punctuation,  in  spelling,  in  syllabication,  and  in  para- 
graphing, as  well  as  in  choosing  the  right  words.  No 
pains  should  be  spared  to  settle  all  doubtful  points  by 
consulting  a  dictionary  or  such  a  book  as  A  Manual  for 
Writers. 

Special  care  should  be  given  to  the  bibliography, 
which  appears  last  in  the  paper,  in  order  that  no  errors 
appear  in  it,  either  with  reference  to  spelling,  punctuation, 
or  the  arrangement  of  the  surnames  of  the  authors  in 
alphabetical  order.  If  more  than  one  book  by  a  specific 
author  is  listed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  name  of 
the  author;  it  is  better  to  use  a  dash  in  the  following 
fashion : 

E.  A.  Ross,  Principles  of  Sociology,  Century,  1920. 
Social  Psychology,  Macmillan,  1908. 

The  manuscript,  when  completed,  should  be  inserted 
and  fastened  in  an  appropriate  cardboard  cover,  bearing 


The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers  35 

the  name  of  the  student,  the  title  of  the  course  of  study, 
and  the  title  of  the  paper. 

In  writing  the  final  draft  of  the  paper,  the  student  will 
be  wise  if  he  chooses  a  quiet  place  in  which  to  work- 
where  no  one  will  interrupt.  The  mind  cannot  do  its 
best  and  most  original  work  beset  by  the  constant  hum 
of  conversation,  or  by  the  disturbing  activities  of  others. 
The  brain  produces  its  best  intellectual  work  when  least 
likely  to  be  disturbed. 

Before  the  final  writing  is  begun,  the  student  will  have 
the  work  in  such  a  shape  that  he  can  lay  it  aside  and 
practically  forget  it  for  at  least  two  or  three  weeks. 
When  it  is  taken  up  after  the  interim,  the  mind  will 
bring  to  it  a  surprising  degree  of  fresh  criticism;  the 
presence  of  unsuspected  errors  will  be  detected  and  new 
ideas  will  occur  to  the  earnest  student.  Further,  this 
precaution  protects  the  student  against  growing  "stale" 
on  his  subject.  In  writing  the  final  draft,  the  student 
should  be  at  his  mental  best,  and  overflowing  with  his 
theme. 

A  high  degree  of  satisfaction  comes  from  doing  original 
work.  The  student  is  not  called  to  be  an  imitator,  a 
copyist,  a  cataloguer.  He  is  a  potential  inventor.  It 
is  not  necessary  for  him  continually  to  bemoan  the  fate 
that  he  is  not  a  born  genius.  He  is  not  obliged  to  live 
in  other  people's  minds.  Originality,  invention,  creation 
are  possible  goals  for  him.  The  student  should  never 
be  satisfied  with  doing  merely  good  work;  nothing  less 
than  his  best  should  satisfy  him,  and  that  only  tem- 
porarily, for  what  is  his  best  work  today  may  be  his 
second  best  tomorrow.  His  possibilities  in  the  direction 
of  originality  he  may  never  have  surmised. 

VIII.    The   Thesis.    The   word,    thesis,    is   properly 


36  The  Technique  of  Preparing  Social  Science  Papers 

used  only  in  connection  with  the  original  study  that  is 
required  for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  or  a  piece  of 
investigation  of  equivalent  caliber.  The  undergraduate 
student  is  usually  unable  to  write  a  paper  worthy  to  be 
called  a  thesis.  An  undergraduate  student,  however, 
who  gives  himself  a  training  in  writing  papers  such  as 
the  preceding  pages  of  this  booklet  presuppose,  will 
ordinarily  have  no  special  difficulty  in  writing  a  thesis 
for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  Hence,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  give  more  than  a  brief  mention  here  to  the 
requirements  for  writing  a  thesis. 

The  topic  for  a  master's  thesis  is  usually  very  specific 
and  limited  in  scope.  The  student  is  expected  to  master 
all  the  literature  that  has  been  written  on  his  thesis 
subject,  and,  as  a  rule,  make  a  special  study  of  his  own 
in  the  given  field.  The  rules  for  collecting  data,  digesting 
and  interpreting  the  results,  and  for  writing  the  thesis 
have  nearly  all  been  covered  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs 
on  the  term  paper. 

A  social  science  thesis  subject  usually  requires  an  aca- 
demic year  in  preparation.  Even  then  the  topic  will 
need  to  be  in  a  field  with  which  the  student  is  quite 
familiar  and  where  the  student  has  fully  developed  back- 
grounds. The  time  element  is  another  essential  in  pre- 
paring a  master's  thesis. 

The  length  of  a  social  science  master's  thesis  varies 
according  to  the  topic  and  the  method  of  treatment. 
As  a  rule,  10,000  to  20,000  words  mark  the  limits,  although 
quality  rather  than  quantity  is  the  main  consideration. 
The  preparation  of  a  master's  thesis  is  a  stimulating 
mental  undertaking.  It  is  a  superior  piece  of  work,  merit- 
ing publication.  It  represents  the  student's  mental  pro- 
cesses at  their  best,  trained,  analytic,  synthetic,  creative. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


,-Fi 


OCT  30   1947 


. 


29 
FEB171956LU 


LD  21-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120 


Makers 

Syracuse,  X.  Y: 
PAT.  JAN.  21 ,1908 


YC   15126 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


